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Use of Cognitive Aids to Augment Point of Care Hemorrhage Control Skills in Laypersons
Dadario, N. B., Shleiwet, N. H., Santana Felipes, R. C., Cook, B., Cooney, J. V., Stephenson, K. M., Elsmore, M., Jafri, F. N.
Disaster medicine and public health preparedness. 2023;17:e428
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The Stop the Bleed course aims to improve bystander hemorrhage control skills and may be improved with point-of-care aids. We sought to create and examine a variety of cognitive aids to identify an optimal method to augment bystander hemorrhage control skills in an emergency scenario. METHODS Randomized trial of 346 college students. Effects of a visual or visual-audio aid on hemorrhage control skills were assessed through randomization into groups with and without prior training or familiarization with aids compared with controls. Tourniquet placement, wound packing skills, and participant comfortability were assessed during a simulated active shooter scenario. RESULTS A total of 325 (94%) participants were included in the final analyses. Participants who had attended training (odds ratio [OR], 12.67; P = 9.3 × 10(-11)), were provided a visual-audio aid (OR, 1.96; P = 0.04), and were primed on their aid (OR, 2.23; P = 0.01) were superior in tourniquet placement with less errors (P < 0.05). Using an aid did not improve wound packing scores compared with bleeding control training alone (P > 0.05). Aid use improved comfortability and likelihood to intervene emergency hemorrhage scenarios (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Using cognitive aids can improve bystander hemorrhage control skills with the strongest effects if they were previously trained and used an aid which combined visual and audio feedback that they were previously introduced to during the course training.
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Recommendations for Improving Stop the Bleed: A Systematic Review
Nichols R, Horstman J
Military medicine. 2022
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In response to mass casualty events, The Hartford Consensus brought together subject matter experts across multiple disciplines in health care and public safety to create guidelines and publications intended to improve survivability in active shooter events. Among the recommendations was the earlier recognition and treatment application of life-threatening hemorrhage control. These recommendations culminated in efforts to create the Stop the Bleed Campaign, which aims to empower the layperson to render aid in a life-threatening bleeding emergency. As of February 2020, the program has held over 86,000 courses, trained over 1.4 million attendees, and over 77,000 instructors since its inception. In addition to spreading within the United States, American College of Surgeons (ACS) Stop the Bleed (StB) classes have been held in 118 different countries. This systematic narrative review aims to answer the following research question: What does the ACS StB Initiative do well, and where can it improve? MATERIALS AND METHODS The following search terms were utilized: "Stop the Bleed," "American College of Surgeons," "bleeding control," "first-aid," tourniquet, "wound pack," "direct pressure" hemorrhage, and bystander. The inclusion criteria were that the article needed to speak to the program or some aspect of bystander first aid, the article needed to be in a civilian setting, the article needed to be more than a case study or overview, and the first aid tools needed to be in the StB curriculum. 4 databases were searched, which produced 138 articles for screening. One hundred four full-text articles were able to be retrieved, and 56 articles were determined to meet the inclusion criteria once the full text was reviewed. RESULTS Fifty-six articles were included in the final review and were placed into the following categories: Needs Within the Community, Confidence and Knowledge, Training Modalities, Barriers and Gaps in Training, Instructor Selection, Skill Retention, and Patient Outcomes. The articles were then organized into each outcome for synthesis and reporting of the results. The program overwhelmingly improves short-term confidence, but gaps in skill retention, data collection on patient outcomes, and settings that would benefit were identified. CONCLUSION StB is an effective tool in building confidence in laypersons, which is its biggest strength. A review of the literature shows several areas where the curriculum and materials could be better developed. Research can also be further refined to better quantify the program's impact.
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Comparison of two teaching methods for stopping the bleed: a randomized controlled trial
Chen, S., Li, J., DiNenna, M. A., Gao, C., Chen, S., Wu, S., Tang, X., He, J.
BMC medical education. 2022;22(1):281
Abstract
BACKGROUND The "Stop the Bleed" (STB) campaign has achieved remarkable results since it was launched in 2016, but there is no report on the teaching of an STB course combined with a trauma patient simulator. This study proposes the "problem-, team-, and evidence-based learning" (PTEBL) teaching method combined with Caesar (a trauma patient simulator) based on the STB course and compares its effect to that of the traditional teaching method among outstanding doctoral candidates training in haemostasis skills. METHOD Seventy-eight outstanding doctoral candidate program students in five and eight-year programs were selected as the research subjects and were randomly divided into a control group (traditional teaching method, n = 34) and an experimental group (PTEBL teaching method combined with Caesar, n = 44). Their confidence in their haemostasis skills and willingness to rescue injured victims were investigated before and after the course in both groups. RESULT Students' self-confidence in their STB skills and the willingness to rescue improved after the class in both groups. Compared with the control group, students in the experimental group were more confident in compressing with bandages and compressing with a tourniquet after a class (compressing with bandages: control group 3.9 ± 0.8 vs. experimental group 4.3 ± 0.7, P = 0.014; compressing with a tourniquet: control group 3.9 ± 0.4 vs. experimental group 4.5 ± 0.8, P = 0.001) More students in the experimental group than the control group thought that the use of Caesar for scenario simulation could improve learning (control group 55.9% vs. experimental group 81.8%, P = 0.024), and using this mannequin led to higher teacher-student interaction (control group 85.3% vs. experimental group 97.7%, P = 0.042). The overall effectiveness of the teaching was better in the experimental group than in the control group (control group 85.3% vs. experimental group 97.7%, P = 0.042). There was a significant positive correlation between teacher-student interactions and the overall effectiveness of teaching (R = 1.000; 95% CI, 1.000-1.000; P < 0.001). CONCLUSION The PTEBL teaching method combined with Caesar can effectively improve student mastery of STB skills and overcome the shortcomings of traditional teaching methods, which has some promotional value in the training of outstanding doctoral candidates in STB skills.
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Effectiveness of "Stop the Bleed" Courses: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Tang X, Nie Y, Wu S, DiNenna MA, He J
Journal of surgical education. 2022
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Our object was to comprehensively analyze the existing body of evidence to evaluate the Stop the Bleed (STB) course effectiveness and satisfaction and find the direction of improvement for the future. STUDY DESIGN A literature search with the term "Stop the Bleed" in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, Cochrane Library was performed, retrieving records from January 1, 2013 to April 13, 2022 based on Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses flow diagram. In addition, all selected papers' references were examined for qualified studies that were missed during the first search. Original publications were included that reported on (1) clinical studies of the STB course implementation; and (2) studies comparing students' hemostasis ability and attitude (comfort, confidence, and willingness) before and after the STB course. The literature search and data extraction were done independently by 2 writers. To establish consensus, disagreements will be handled with the help of a third reviewer. For data synthesis, the most inclusive data from studies with repeated data were abstracted. Changes in hemostasis questionnaire scoring and operation evaluation after the STB course were the main outcomes. RESULTS This systematic review and meta-analysis includes 36 trials with a total of 11,561 trainees. Thirty-one of them were undertaken in the USA, while the other 5, accounting for 13.9%, were conducted in other regions. Among various evaluation methods, 3 trials with 927 trainees indicated that scores of correct uses of tourniquet significantly increased after the STB course (mean difference of post versus pre groups, 44.28; 95% CI 41.24-47.32; p < 0.001). Significant difference was also observed in the willingness to apply a hemostatic dressing in a real-world situation (risk ratio for post versus pre groups, 1.28; 95% CI 1.08-1.52; p = 0.004) (7 studies and 2360 participants). The results indicate that hemostasis knowledge and skills after the STB course had improved, but statistics indicated that STB courses implemented in the USA were more effective than other regions. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Meta-analysis showed that comparison before and after the STB course were significantly different. However, the outcome measures in each study were different and could not, therefore, be compiled in all cases. The effectiveness and worth of implementation of STB in different countries should be continuously evaluated in the future.
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Characterizing red blood cell age exposure in massive transfusion therapy: the scalar age of blood index (SBI)
DeSantis SM, Brown DW, Jones AR, Yamal JM, Pittet JF, Patel RP, Wade CE, Holcomb JB, Wang H
Transfusion. 2019
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The mortality of trauma patients requiring massive transfusion to treat hemorrhagic shock approaches 17% at 24 hours and 26% at 30 days. The use of stored RBCs is limited to less than 42 days, so older RBCs are delivered first to rapidly bleeding trauma patients. Patients who receive a greater quantity of older RBCs may have a higher risk for mortality. METHODS AND MATERIALS Characterizing blood age exposure requires accounting for the age of each RBC unit and the quantity of transfused units. To address this challenge, a novel Scalar Age of Blood Index (SBI) that represents the relative distribution of RBCs received is introduced and applied to a secondary analysis of the Pragmatic, Randomized Optimal Platelet and Plasma Ratios (PROPPR) randomized controlled trial (NCT01545232, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01545232). The effect of the SBI is assessed on the primary PROPPR outcome, 24-hour and 30-day mortality. RESULTS The distributions of blood storage ages successfully maps to a parameter (SBI) that fully defines the blood age curve for each patient. SBI was a significant predictor of 24-hour and 30-day mortality in an adjusted model that had strong predictive ability (odds ratio, 1.15 [1.01-1.29], p = 0.029, C-statistic, 0.81; odds ratio, 1.14 [1.02-1.28], p = 0.019, C-statistic, 0.88, respectively). CONCLUSION SBI is a simple scalar metric of blood age that accounts for the relative distribution of RBCs among age categories. Transfusion of older RBCs is associated with 24-hour and 30-day mortality, after adjustment for total units and clinical covariates.
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High Tourniquet Failure Rates Among Non-Medical Personnel Do Not Improve with Tourniquet Training, Including Combat Stress Inoculation: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Tsur AM, Binyamin Y, Koren L, Ohayon S, Thompson P, Glassberg E
Prehospital and disaster medicine. 2019;:1-6
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rate of failing to apply a tourniquet remains high. HYPOTHESIS The study objective was to examine whether early advanced training under conditions that approximate combat conditions and provide stress inoculation improve competency, compared to the current educational program of non-medical personnel. METHODS This was a randomized controlled trial. Male recruits of the armored corps were included in the study. During Combat Lifesaver training, recruits apply The Tourniquet 12 times. This educational program was used as the control group. The combat stress inoculation (CSI) group also included 12 tourniquet applications, albeit some of them in combat conditions such as low light and physical exertion. Three parameters defined success, and these parameters were measured by The Simulator: (1) applied pressure ≥ 200mmHg; (2) time to stop bleeding ≤ 60 seconds; and (3) placement up to 7.5cm above the amputation. RESULTS Out of the participants, 138 were assigned to the control group and 167 were assigned to the CSI group. The overall failure rate was 80.33% (81.90% in the control group versus 79.00% in the CSI group; P value = .565; 95% confidence interval, 0.677 to 2.122). Differences in pressure, time to stop bleeding, or placement were not significant (95% confidence intervals, -17.283 to 23.404, -1.792 to 6.105, and 0.932 to 2.387, respectively). Tourniquet placement was incorrect in most of the applications (62.30%). CONCLUSIONS This study found high rates of failure in tourniquet application immediately after successful completion of tourniquet training. These rates did not improve with tourniquet training, including CSI. The results may indicate that better tourniquet training methods should be pursued.
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Missing expectations: Windlass tourniquet use without formal training yields poor results
Dennis A, Bajani F, Schlanser V, Tatebe LC, Impens A, Ivkovic K, Li A, Pickett T, Butler C, Kaminsky M, et al
The journal of trauma and acute care surgery. 2019
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite significant attempts to educate civilians in hemorrhage control, the majority remain untrained. We sought to determine if laypersons can successfully apply one of three commercially available tourniquets; including those endorsed by the United States Military and the American College of Surgeons. METHODS Pre-clinical graduate health science students were randomly assigned a commercially-available windless tourniquet: SAM(R) XT, Combat Application Tourniquet(R) (CAT), or Special Operation Forces(R) Tactical Tourniquet (SOFT-T). Each was given up to one minute to read package instructions and asked to apply it to the HapMed(R) Leg Tourniquet Trainer. Estimated blood loss was measured until successful hemostatic pressure was achieved or simulated death occurred from exsanguination. Simulation survival, time to read instructions and stop bleeding, tourniquet pressure, and blood loss were analyzed. RESULTS Of the 150 students recruited, 55, 46, and 49 were randomized to the SAM XT, CAT, SOFT-T, respectively. Mean overall simulation survival was less than 66% (61%, 72%, 65%; p=0.55). Of survivors, all three tourniquets performed similarly in median pressure applied (319 mmHg, 315 mmHg, and 329 mmHg; p=0.54) and median time to stop bleeding (91 sec, 70 sec, 77 sec; p=0.28). There was a statistical difference in median blood loss volume favoring SOFT-T (SAM XT 686 ml, CAT 624 ml, SOFT-T 433 ml; p=0.03). All 16 participants with previous experience were able to successfully place the tourniquet compared to 81 of 131 (62%) first-time users (p=0.008). CONCLUSION No one should die of extremity hemorrhage, and civilians are our first line of defense. We demonstrate that when an untrained layperson is handed a commonly accepted tourniquet, failure is unacceptably high. Current devices are not intuitive and require training beyond the enclosed instructions. Plans to further evaluate this cohort after formal "Stop the Bleed" training are underway. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level II; Therapeutic study type.
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Effectiveness of the American College of Surgeons Bleeding Control Basic Training Among Laypeople Applying Different Tourniquet Types: A Randomized Clinical Trial
McCarty JC, Hashmi ZG, Herrera-Escobar JP, de Jager E, Chaudhary MA, Lipsitz SR, Jarman M, Caterson EJ, Goralnick E
JAMA surgery. 2019
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Abstract
Importance: More than 500000 laypeople in the United States have been trained in hemorrhage control, including tourniquet application, under the Stop the Bleed campaign. However, it is unclear whether after hemorrhage control training participants become proficient in a specific type of tourniquet or can also use other tourniquets effectively. Objective: To assess whether participants completing the American College of Surgeons Bleeding Control Basic (B-Con) training with Combat Application Tourniquets (CATs) can effectively apply bleeding control principles using other tourniquet types (commercial and improvised). Design, Setting, and Participants: This nonblinded, crossover, sequential randomized clinical trial with internal control assessed a volunteer sample of laypeople who attended a B-Con course at Gillette Stadium and the Longwood Medical Area in Boston, Massachusetts, for correct application of each of 5 different tourniquet types immediately after B-Con training from April 4, 2018, to October 9, 2018. The order of application varied for each participant using randomly generated permutated blocks. Interventions: Full B-Con course, including cognitive and skill sessions, that taught bleeding care, wound pressure and packing, and CAT application. Main Outcomes and Measures: Correct tourniquet application (applied pressure of ≥250 mm Hg with a 2-minute time cap) in a simulated scenario for 3 commercial tourniquets (Special Operation Forces Tactical Tourniquet, Stretch-Wrap-and-Tuck Tourniquet, and Rapid Application Tourniquet System) and improvised tourniquet compared with correct CAT application as an internal control using 4 pairwise Bonferroni-corrected comparisons with the McNemar test. Results: A total of 102 participants (50 [49.0%] male; median [interquartile range] age, 37.5 [27.0-53.0] years) were included in the study. Participants correctly applied the CAT at a significantly higher rate (92.2%) than all other commercial tourniquet types (Special Operation Forces Tactical Tourniquet, 68.6%; Stretch-Wrap-and-Tuck Tourniquet, 11.8%; Rapid Application Tourniquet System, 11.8%) and the improvised tourniquet (32.4%) (P < .001 for each pairwise comparison). When comparing tourniquets applied correctly, all tourniquet types had higher estimated blood loss, had longer application time, and applied less pressure than the CAT. Conclusions and Relevance: The B-Con principles for correct CAT application are not fully translatable to other commercial or improvised tourniquet types. This study demonstrates a disconnect between the B-Con course and tourniquet designs available for bystander first aid, potentially stemming from the lack of consensus guidelines. These results suggest that current B-Con trainees may not be prepared to care for bleeding patients as tourniquet design evolves. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier:NCT03538379.
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Dynamic Visual Feedback During Junctional Tourniquet Training
Xu J, Kwan C, Sunkara A, Mohamadipanah H, Bell K, Tizale M, Pugh CM
The Journal of surgical research. 2019;233:444-452.
Abstract
BACKGROUND This project involved the development and evaluation of a new visual bleeding feedback (VBF) system for tourniquet training. We hypothesized that dynamic VBF during junctional tourniquet training would be helpful and well received by trainees. MATERIALS AND METHODS We designed the VBF to simulate femoral bleeding. Medical students (n = 15) and emergency medical service (EMS) members (n = 4) were randomized in a single-blind, crossover study to the VBF or without feedback groups. Poststudy surveys assessing VBF usefulness and recommendations were conducted along with participants' reported confidence using a 7-point Likert scale. Data from the different groups were compared using Wilcoxon signed-rank and rank-sum tests. RESULTS Participants rated the helpfulness of the VBF highly (6.53/7.00) and indicated they were very likely to recommend the VBF simulator to others (6.80/7.00). Pre- and post-VBF confidence were not statistically different (P = 0.59). Likewise, tourniquet application times for VBF and without feedback before crossover were not statistically different (P = 0.63). Although participant confidence did not change significantly from beginning to end of the study (P = 0.46), application time was significantly reduced (P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS New tourniquet learners liked our VBF prototype and found it useful. Although confidence did not change over the course of the study for any group, application times improved. Future studies using outcomes of this study will allow us to continue VBF development as well as incorporate other quantitative measures of task performance to elucidate VBF's true benefit and help trainees achieve mastery in junctional tourniquet skills.
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A Novel, Perfused-Cadaver Simulation Model for Tourniquet Training in Military Medics
Grabo DJ Jr, Polk T, Strumwasser A, Inaba K, Foran C, Luther C, Minneti M, Kronstedt S, Wilson A, Demetriades D
Journal of special operations medicine : a peer reviewed journal for SOF medical professionals. 2018;18((4):):97-102.
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exsanguinating limb injury is a significant cause of preventable death on the battlefield and can be controlled with tourniquets. US Navy corpsmen rotating at the Navy Trauma Training Center receive instruction on tourniquets. We evaluated the effectiveness of traditional tourniquet instruction compared with a novel, perfused-cadaver, simulation model for tourniquet training. METHODS Corpsmen volunteering to participate were randomly assigned to one of two tourniquet training arms. Traditional training (TT) consisted of lectures, videos, and practice sessions. Perfused-cadaver training (PCT) included TT plus training using a regionally perfused cadaver. Corpsmen were evaluated on their ability to achieve hemorrhage control with tourniquet(s) using the perfused cadaver. Outcomes included (1) time to control hemorrhage, (2) correct placement of tourniquet(s), and (3) volume of simulated blood loss. Participants were asked about confidence in understanding indications and skills for tourniquets. RESULTS The 53 corpsmen enrolled in the study were randomly assigned as follows: 26 to the TT arm and 27 to the PCT arm. Corpsmen in the PCT group controlled bleeding with the first tourniquet more frequently (96% versus 83%; p < .03), were quicker to hemorrhage control (39 versus 45 seconds; p < .01), and lost less simulated blood (256mL versus 355mL; p < .01). There was a trend toward increased confidence in tourniquet application among all corpsmen. CONCLUSIONS Using a perfused- cadaver training model, corpsmen placed tourniquets more rapidly and with less simulated-blood loss than their traditional training counterparts. They were more likely to control hemorrhage with first tourniquet placement and gain confidence in this procedure. Additional studies are indicated to identify components of effective simulation training for tourniquets.
